Acta Gymnica e2025.015 | DOI: 10.5507/ag.2025.015

Perceptions of female athletes regarding career barriers: Evidence from Turkey

Ahmet Yavuz Karafil1, Melisa Kösemek2
1 Department of Sports Management, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur, Turkey; and
2 Institute of Social Sciences, Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur, Turkey

Background: Female athletes often face unique challenges in their career progression due to societal perceptions and gender inequality. These barriers can significantly hinder long-term success and lead to premature termination of athletic careers. In the Turkish cultural context, such challenges are further reinforced by patriarchal family expectations, uneven regional opportunities, and entrenched gender norms, underscoring the importance of examining barriers in both global and local dimensions.

Objective: This study aims to identify and analyze the career barriers experienced by female athletes in Turkey, with a particular focus on the influence of cultural context, social structure, gender norms, and lack of support on their sporting careers.

Methods: Using Q methodology, which combines qualitative and quantitative approaches, data were collected from 22 female athletes selected through snowball sampling. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to generate authentic statements, which were then used in a Q sort process. Data analysis was carried out using principal component analysis via PQMethod software.

Results: Participants' responses clustered under a single dominant factor. The most significant barriers identified included misguidance from coaches (Z = 1.426), lack of opportunities in residential areas (Z = 1.408), insufficient coaching knowledge (Z = 1.152), economic difficulties (Z = 1.124), and patriarchal family structures (Z = 1.112). These findings highlight the multidimensional and context-specific nature of the obstacles female athletes face.

Conclusions: The study underscores the need for structural reforms in sports environments to support female athletes. In Turkey, patriarchal family expectations and regional inequalities play a decisive role in shaping women's sporting trajectories. Addressing these barriers requires both locally grounded interventions and globally informed strategies. This research contributes to the development of inclusive practices that can promote career sustainability for women in sports.

Keywords: gender disparities in sports, obstacles to female athletes' career progression, challenges for women athletes in sports

Received: August 31, 2024; Revised: October 23, 2025; Accepted: October 27, 2025; Published online: November 14, 2025  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Karafil, A.Y., & Kösemek, M. (2025). Perceptions of female athletes regarding career barriers: Evidence from Turkey. Acta Gymnica, 55, Article e2025.015. https://doi.org/10.5507/ag.2025.015
Share...
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa Go to original source...
    2. Brown, C. J., Webb, T. L., Robinson, M. A., & Cotgreave, R. (2018). Athletes' experiences of social support during their transition out of elite sport: An interpretive phenomenological analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 36, 71-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.01.003 Go to original source...
    3. Cadaret, M. C., Hartung, P. J., Subich, L. M., & Weigold, I. K. (2017). Stereotype threat as a barrier to women entering engineering careers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 99, 40-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2016.12.002 Go to original source...
    4. Condello, G., Capranica, L., Doupona, M., Varga, K., & Burk, V. (2019). Dual-career through the elite university student-athletes' lenses: The international FISU-EAS survey. PLOS ONE, 14(10), Article e0223278. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223278 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    5. Cooky, C., Messner, M. A., & Musto, M. (2015). "It's dude time!" A quarter century of excluding women's sports in televised news and highlight shows. Communication & Sport, 3(3), 261-287. https://doi.org/10.1177/216747951558876 Go to original source...
    6. de Jonge, L. P., Timmerman, A. A., Govaerts, M. J., Muris, J. W., Muijtjens, A. M., Kramer, A. W., & van der Vleuten, C. P. (2017). Stakeholder perspectives on workplace-based performance assessment: Towards a better understanding of assessor behaviour. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 22, 1213-1243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-017-9760-7 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    7. Demir, F., & Kul, M. (2011). A modern research method: Q methodology. Adalet Publishing.
    8. Edmunds, L. D., Ovseiko, P. V., Shepperd, S., Greenhalgh, T., Frith, P., Roberts, N. W., Pololi, L. H., & Buchan, A. M. (2016). Why do women choose or reject careers in academic medicine? A narrative review of empirical evidence. Lancet, 388(10062), 2948-2958. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01091-0 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    9. Frear, K. A., Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., Heggestad, E. D., & Walker, L. S. (2019). Gender and career success: A typology and analysis of dual paradigms. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 40(4), 400-416. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2338 Go to original source...
    10. Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2005). Family socialization, gender, and sport motivation and involvement. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 27(1), 3-31. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.27.1.3 Go to original source...
    11. García-Solà, M., Ramis, Y., Borrueco, M., & Torregrossa, M. (2023). Dual careers in women's sports: A scoping review. Apunts Educación Física y Deportes, 154, 16-33. https://doi.org/10.5672/apunts.2014-0983.es.(2023/4).154.02 Go to original source...
    12. Gender Equality Monitoring Association. (2023). Sporda başarililar, yönetimde yoklar: Yil 2024 kadinlar spor yönetiminde aktif değil [Successful women in sports are absent in management: Year 2024 - Women are not active in sports governance]. https://9koy.org/sporda-basarililar-yonetimde-yoklar-yil-2024-kadinlar-spor-yonetiminde-aktif-degil.html
    13. Hovden, J., & Tjønndal, A. (2017). The gendering of coaching from an athlete perspective: The case of Norwegian boxing. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 54(2), 239-255. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690217715641 Go to original source...
    14. Jayachandran, S. (2020). Social norms as a barrier to women's employment in developing countries. https://doi.org/10.3386/w27449 Go to original source...
    15. Jia, L., Carter, M. V., Cusano, A., Li, X., Kelly, J. D., IV, Bartley, J. D., & Parisien, R. L. (2023). The effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental and emotional health of athletes: A systematic review. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(8), 2207-2215. https://doi.org/10.1177/03635465221087473 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    16. Klaus, T., Wingreen, S. C., & Blanton, J. E. (2010). Resistant groups in enterprise system implementations: A Q-methodology examination. Journal of Information Technology, 25(1), 91-106. https://doi.org/10.1057/jit.2009.7 Go to original source...
    17. Knight, C. J., Harwood, C. G., & Sellars, P. A. (2018). Supporting adolescent athletes' dual careers: The role of an athlete's social support network. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 38, 137-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.06.007 Go to original source...
    18. Koca, C. (2021). Analysis of women and sport in Turkey. In R. L. De D'Amico, M. Koushkie Jahromi, & M. L. M. Guinto (Eds.), Women and sport in Asia (pp. 226-236). Routledge. Go to original source...
    19. Koch, A. J., D'Mello, S. D., & Sackett, P. R. (2015). A meta-analysis of gender stereotypes and bias in experimental simulations of employment decision making. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(1), 128-161. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036734 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    20. Lupo, C., Guidotti, F., Goncalves, C. E., Moreira, L., Doupona Topic, M., Bellardini, H., Tonkonogi, M., Colin, A., & Capranica, L. (2015). Motivation towards dual career of European student-athletes. European Journal of Sport Science, 15(2), 151-160. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2014.940557 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    21. Mascarin, R. B., Vicentini, L., & Marques, R. F. R. (2019). Brazilian women elite futsal players' career development: Diversified experiences and late sport specialization. Motriz: Revista de Educação Física, 25(2), Article e101968. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1980-6574201900010014 Go to original source...
    22. McKeown, B., & Thomas, D. B. (2013). Q methodology (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483384412 Go to original source...
    23. Mogaji, E., Badejo, F. A., Charles, S., & Millisits, J. (2021). Financial well-being of sportswomen. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 13(2), 299-319. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2021.1903530 Go to original source...
    24. Pons, J., Ramis, Y., Alcaraz, S., Jordana, A., Borrueco, M., & Torregrossa, M. (2020). Where did all the sport go? Negative impact of COVID-19 lockdown on life-spheres and mental health of Spanish young athletes. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 611872. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.611872 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    25. Robnik, P., Kolar, E., İtrumbelj, B., & Ferjan, M. (2022). Dual career development perspective: Factors affecting quality of post-sport career transition of employed Olympic athletes. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 800031. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.800031 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    26. Schmid, M. J., Örencik, M., Schmid, J., & Conzelmann, A. (2023). Linking sports-related and socio-economic resources of retiring Olympic athletes to their subsequent vocational career. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 58(5), 809-828. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902221123881 Go to original source...
    27. Schmolck, P. (2014). PQMethod (Version 2.35) [Computer software]. https://schmolck.org/qmethod
    28. Shipherd, A., Wakefield, J., Stokowski, S., & Filho, E. (2018). The influence of coach turnover on student-athletes' affective states and team dynamics: An exploratory study in collegiate sports. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 14(1), 97-106. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747954118766465 Go to original source...
    29. Sports and Physical Activity Association for Women. (2023). Sporda Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliği Raporu'nu Yayimladi [Gender equality in sports report]. https://olimpiyat.org.tr/Haber-Detay/KASFAD-2023-Sporda-Toplumsal-Cinsiyet-Esitligi-Raporu%E2%80%99nu-Yayimladi/11754
    30. Stambulova, N. B., & Wylleman, P. (2019). Psychology of athletes' dual careers: A state-of-the-art critical review of the European discourse. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 42, 74-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.11.013 Go to original source...
    31. Turkish Statistical Institute (2024). Türkiye'de Istatistiklerle Kadin [Women in statistics 2024]. https://www.tuik.gov.tr/media/announcements/istatistiklerle_kad%C4%B1n2024.pdf
    32. Wicker, P. (2023). Gender stereotypes and their correlates: The moderating role of voluntary sports club membership. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article 1236439. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1236439 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...

    This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0), which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original publication is properly cited. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.


    Return to the content